Answer to Question #1298 Submitted to "Ask the Experts"

Q

Who was the first in giving radiation protection advice: Wolfram Fuchs (12 December 1896) or Nikola Tesla (June 1896)? According to Professor Bo Lindell ("History of Radiation Protection in the First 100 Years," European Commission Publication "Radiation Protection 93," European Communities, 1997) and ICRP Memorandum ("A Report on Progress Towards New Recommendations: A Communication from the International Commission on Radiological Protection," J. Radiol. Prot< 21(2001)113-123) it was Wolfram Fuchs. But, according to Dr. E. Gail de Planque ("Radiation Protection: A Lesson in Societal Decision Making," Transaction Vol.1, p. 180-187, of the International Nuclear Congress - Atoms for Energy, Lyon, France, October 2-6,1994) it was Nikola Tesla. Where is the truth? Who is right?

A

Let me begin with the words of Gail de Planque: "Nicola Tesla, the brilliant electrical experimenter, in June 1896, provided perhaps one of the earliest and one of the most fundamental principles of radiation protection: 'Experimenters should not get too close to the x-ray tube.'" Nikola Tesla was one of the first to report the hazards of working with x rays. In Tesla's case, the injury was an irritation to the eyes (which might actually have been a simple case of eyestrain due to the long hours of observing dimly lit fluorescent screen in darkness). Tesla's recommendation to stay away from the x-ray tube would certainly fall into the category of an effective protective measure. The problem is that Tesla did not attribute the hazards to the x rays themselves. Quoting Tesla (Electrical Review, 30 November 1896): "As to the hurtful actions on the skin . . . I note that they have been misinterpreted. . . . They are not due to the Roentgen rays, but merely to the ozone generated in contact with the skin. Nitrous acid may also be responsible, but to a small extent." Tesla's confusion is further illustrated by another protective (but completely ineffective) measure he adopted: "I have always taken the precaution when getting impressions with the rays, to guard the person by a screen made of aluminum wires which is connected to the ground, preferably through a condenser." Although Tesla was among the first to report the potential damaging effects of x rays and to recommend precautionary measures, he did not attribute the effects to x rays. Therefore it would be difficult, at least for me, to accept any precautions Tesla recommended as belonging in the category of radiation protection. On the other hand, Elihu Thomson at the Edison Laboratories was firmly convinced of the hazards from x rays and he participated in "a lively controversy" with Tesla about this. To help prove his point, Thomson conducted an experiment in which he exposed his left hand to x rays with all but the last joint of his little finger protected by lead. The unprotected skin exhibited considerable damage and Thomson had trouble with that finger for the rest of his life (see Electrical Engineer, 24 Nov. 1896). Upon hearing of what had happened, his friend, the well-known chemist William Greene, wrote: "I was sorry to here of the sad results on your finger and hope that you will make your next experiment on someone else and not on yourself. Why don't you help some of the good New England Congregationalists get up a new theory of Hell in which the quivering flesh shall be scorched through and through with these rays which blast and whither but do not consume?" Wolfram Fuchs, the individual cited by Professor Lindell and the ICRP Memorandum, operated an x-ray laboratory in Chicago. In December of 1896, he made the following recommendations in the Western Electrician:

1. Make the exposure as short as possible.
2. Do not place the x-ray tube closer to the body than 12 inches (30 cm).
3. Rub the skin carefully with Vaseline and leave a layer on the part that shall be exposed.

Permit me to offer two reasons why Fuchs deserves more credit than Tesla. First, the precautionary measures he advocated were aimed at reducing the exposures to the x rays themselves and not some other associated hazard such as ozone, ultra violet radiation, or electricity. Second, Fuchs provided a complete enunciation of what are still recognized as the three guiding principles of radiation protection: time, distance, and shielding (although the value of Vaseline as a shielding material might be questioned). Given all this, I would still hesitate to say that Fuchs was the first to offer recommendations regarding radiation protection. X-ray damage to the skin and eyes was reported at least as early as March of 1896. It would seem natural that many of the workers observing such effects would have taken protective measures (some of which might have been effective) to prevent their repeat occurrence. These measures might never have been described in a publication. It is also possible we have overlooked some published recommendations pertaining to radiation protection that have precedence over those of Fuchs. An excellent reference, and one that I have made considerable use of in formulating this answer, is The Rays by Ruth and Edward Brecher (Williams and Wilkins 1969). Paul Frame, CHP, PhD